Emotional, Financial, Physical, and Social Changes About Having a Baby as a Teenager

Learning Objectives

• Explicate the physical development that occurs from infancy through childhood
• Explain the cognitive development that occurs from infancy through childhood

Physical Development

In infancy, toddlerhood, and early on babyhood, the body's physical development is rapid (Figure 1). On average, newborns counterbalance between 5 and x pounds, and a newborn's weight typically doubles in half dozen months and triples in one year. Past two years onetime the weight will have quadrupled, so we can expect that a 2 year old should weigh betwixt 20 and 40 pounds. The average length of a newborn is 19.5 inches, increasing to 29.five inches by 12 months and 34.4 inches by 2 years old (WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group, 2006).

Figure 1. Children experience rapid concrete changes through infancy and early childhood. (credit "left": modification of piece of work past Kerry Ceszyk; credit "middle-left": modification of work past Kristi Fausel; credit "middle-right": modification of work by "devinf"/Flickr; credit "right": modification of piece of work past Rose Spielman)

During infancy and childhood, growth does non occur at a steady rate (Carel, Lahlou, Roger, & Chaussain, 2004). Growth slows betwixt 4 and 6 years onetime: During this time children gain 5–7 pounds and grow about 2–3 inches per year. One time girls achieve 8–nine years quondam, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until effectually 12 years old, coinciding with the offset of the menstrual bicycle. By ten years quondam, the average daughter weighs 88 pounds, and the boilerplate boy weighs 85 pounds.

We are born with all of the brain cells that we volition ever have—almost 100–200 billion neurons (nerve cells) whose office is to shop and transmit data (Huttenlocher & Dabholkar, 1997). All the same, the nervous system continues to abound and develop. Each neural pathway forms thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood. This menstruation of rapid neural growth is chosen blooming. Neural pathways continue to develop through puberty. The blooming menses of neural growth is so followed by a period of pruning, where neural connections are reduced. It is thought that pruning causes the encephalon to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills (Hutchinson, 2011). Blooming occurs during the kickoff few years of life, and pruning continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the brain.

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The size of our brains increases rapidly. For example, the brain of a 2-twelvemonth-erstwhile is 55% of its adult size, and by half-dozen years onetime the brain is most 90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978). During early childhood (ages three–six), the frontal lobes grow rapidly. Recalling our give-and-take of the 4 lobes of the brain earlier in this volume, the frontal lobes are associated with planning, reasoning, memory, and impulse command. Therefore, by the time children reach schoolhouse age, they are developmentally capable of decision-making their attention and behavior. Through the simple school years, the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow in size. The brain growth spurts experienced in childhood tend to follow Piaget's sequence of cognitive development, so that significant changes in neural performance business relationship for cognitive advances (Kolb & Whishaw, 2009; Overman, Bachevalier, Turner, & Peuster, 1992).

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Motor evolution occurs in an orderly sequence equally infants motion from reflexive reactions (eastward.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. For instance, babies outset larn to hold their heads up, then to sit down with assistance, and so to sit unassisted, followed afterward by itch and then walking.

Motor skills refer to our ability to motility our bodies and dispense objects. Fine motor skills focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of pocket-size actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon). Gross motor skillsouthward focus on large muscle groups that command our arms and legs and involve larger movements (east.one thousand., balancing, running, and jumping).

Equally motor skills develop, at that place are certain developmental milestones that young children should reach (Table 1). For each milestone there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should exist reached. An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. On average, most babies sit solitary at seven months old. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength, and xc% of babies achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old. In another example, babies on boilerplate are able to hold up their head at vi weeks old, and 90% of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and iv months old. If a baby is not property upwardly his caput by 4 months old, he is showing a delay. If the child is displaying delays on several milestones, that is reason for business, and the parent or caregiver should discuss this with the child's pediatrician. Some developmental delays tin can exist identified and addressed through early intervention.

Tabular array i. Developmental Milestones, Ages 2–v Years

Historic period (years)	Physical	Personal/Social	Language	Cognitive
two	Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs	Plays alongside other children; copies adults	Points to objects when named; puts 2–iv words together in a sentence	Sorts shapes and colors; follows 2-step instructions
three	Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle	Takes turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self	Names familiar things; uses pronouns	Plays make believe; works toys with parts (levers, handles)
4	Catches balls; uses pair of scissors	Prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests	Knows songs and rhymes by memory	Names colors and numbers; begins writing letters
five	Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon	Distinguishes existent from pretend; likes to delight friends	Speaks clearly; uses full sentences	Counts to 10 or higher; prints some letters and copies basic shapes

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Figure two. Man with a babe.

Cognitive Evolution

In add-on to rapid physical growth, young children also exhibit significant development of their cerebral abilities. Piaget idea that children'due south ability to sympathise objects—such equally learning that a rattle makes a dissonance when shaken—was a cerebral skill that develops slowly as a child matures and interacts with the surroundings. Today, developmental psychologists call up Piaget was incorrect. Researchers accept found that even very immature children understand objects and how they work long earlier they have experience with those objects (Baillargeon, 1987; Baillargeon, Li, Gertner, & Wu, 2011). For example, children equally young every bit 3 months old demonstrated knowledge of the properties of objects that they had only viewed and did non have prior experience with them. In one study, 3-calendar month-onetime infants were shown a truck rolling down a track and behind a screen. The box, which appeared solid but was actually hollow, was placed next to the rails. The truck rolled past the box as would be expected. Then the box was placed on the rails to block the path of the truck. When the truck was rolled down the rails this time, information technology continued unimpeded. The infants spent significantly more than time looking at this incommunicable event (Effigy 2). Baillargeon (1987) concluded that they knew solid objects cannot pass through each other. Baillargeon's findings suggest that very young children have an understanding of objects and how they work, which Piaget (1954) would have said is beyond their cognitive abilities due to their limited experiences in the globe.

Figure ii. In Baillargeon's written report, infants observed a truck (a) curl down an unobstructed runway, (b) coil down an unobstructed runway with an obstruction (box) beside it, and (c) roll down and pass through what appeared to exist an obstruction.

Merely as there are concrete milestones that nosotros look children to reach, there are also cognitive milestones. It is helpful to be aware of these milestones equally children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate. For example, infants shake their head "no" around 6–ix months, and they respond to verbal requests to practice things similar "wave bye-good day" or "blow a kiss" around 9–12 months. Remember Piaget'due south ideas about object permanence? Nosotros can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to be fifty-fifty when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers (i.eastward., 12–24 months sometime) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games similar hide and seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers as well point to pictures in books and look in advisable places when you ask them to find objects.

Just as there are physical milestones that nosotros expect children to reach, there are also cognitive milestones . It is helpful to exist enlightened of these milestones as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate. For example, infants shake their head "no" around 6–9 months, and they answer to verbal requests to do things like "wave bye-bye" or "blow a osculation" around 9–12 months. Recall Piaget'southward ideas about object permanence? We can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist fifty-fifty when they are not in sight by effectually 8 months old. Considering toddlers (i.eastward., 12–24 months erstwhile) have mastered object permanence, they relish games like hibernate and seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers too betoken to pictures in books and look in advisable places when yous enquire them to find objects.

Preschool-age children (i.e., three–v years old) also make steady progress in cognitive development. Not simply can they count, proper noun colors, and tell you lot their name and age, only they can also make some decisions on their ain, such equally choosing an outfit to wear. Preschool-age children understand bones time concepts and sequencing (e.grand., before and after), and they can predict what volition happen side by side in a story. They also begin to enjoy the apply of humor in stories. Because they can think symbolically, they bask pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios. Ane of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their blossoming curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask "Why?"

An important cognitive alter occurs in children this age. Think that Piaget described 2–3 yr olds as egocentric, significant that they do not have an awareness of others' points of view. Between 3 and 5 years old, children come up to empathise that people take thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are unlike from their ain. This is known equally theory-of-mind (TOM). Children can employ this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to buy a candy bar, or understand why a sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognize that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).

An important cognitive change occurs in children this historic period. Call back that Piaget described two–three twelvemonth olds equally egocentric, meaning that they do non take an awareness of others' points of view. Between iii and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory of heed (TOM). Children tin can apply this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or empathise why a sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they tin can recognize that others have false behavior (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).

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Cognitive skills go on to aggrandize in middle and late babyhood (6–11 years old). Thought processes become more logical and organized when dealing with concrete information (Effigy 3). Children at this historic period empathize concepts such every bit the past, present, and future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals. Additionally, they can procedure circuitous ideas such every bit improver and subtraction and crusade-and-outcome relationships. However, children's attending spans tend to be very limited until they are around 11 years old. After that point, it begins to meliorate through machismo.

Figure iii. Because they understand luck and fairness, children in heart and late babyhood (vi–11 years one-time) are able to follow rules for games. (credit: Edwin Martinez)

One well-researched attribute of cognitive evolution is language acquisition. As mentioned before, the order in which children learn language structures is consequent across children and cultures (Hatch, 1983). Yous've besides learned that some psychological researchers have proposed that children possess a biological predisposition for language acquisition.

Starting before birth, babies begin to develop linguistic communication and communication skills. At nativity, babies apparently recognize their female parent's voice and can discriminate between the linguistic communication(s) spoken by their mothers and foreign languages, and they show preferences for faces that are moving in synchrony with audible language (Blossom & Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981).

Children communicate information through gesturing long before they speak, and at that place is some bear witness that gesture usage predicts subsequent language development (Iverson & Goldin-Meadow, 2005). In terms of producing spoken linguistic communication, babies begin to coo almost immediately. Cooing is a one-syllable combination of a consonant and a vowel sound (e.one thousand., coo or ba). Interestingly, babies replicate sounds from their own languages. A baby whose parents speak French will coo in a different tone than a babe whose parents speak Castilian or Urdu. After cooing, the baby starts to blubbering. Babbling begins with repeating a syllable, such equally ma-ma, da-da, or ba-ba. When a babe is about 12 months former, we wait her to say her first word for meaning, and to start combining words for pregnant at most 18 months.

At nigh 2 years old, a toddler uses between 50 and 200 words; by 3 years old they have a vocabulary of up to one,000 words and can speak in sentences. During the early on childhood years, children's vocabulary increases at a rapid footstep. This is sometimes referred to every bit the "vocabulary spurt" and has been claimed to involve an expansion in vocabulary at a rate of ten–20 new words per week. Recent enquiry may point that while some children experience these spurts, it is far from universal (as discussed in Ganger & Brent, 2004). It has been estimated that, v twelvemonth olds understand almost vi,000 words, speak 2,000 words, and can define words and question their meanings. They can rhyme and name the days of the week. Seven year olds speak fluently and use slang and clichés (Stork & Widdowson, 1974).

What accounts for such dramatic linguistic communication learning past children? Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought that nosotros learn language in response to reinforcement or feedback, such as through parental approving or through being understood. For example, when a two-twelvemonth-old child asks for juice, he might say, "me juice," to which his mother might respond by giving him a cup of apple juice. Noam Chomsky (1957) criticized Skinner's theory and proposed that we are all built-in with an innate capacity to learn language. Chomsky chosen this mechanism a language conquering device (LAD). Who is right? Both Chomsky and Skinner are right. Call back that we are a product of both nature and nurture. Researchers now believe that language acquisition is partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic surroundings (Gleitman & Newport, 1995; Stork & Widdowson, 1974).

What accounts for such dramatic language learning past children? Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought that nosotros learn linguistic communication in response to reinforcement, such as through parental approval or through being understood. For example, when a 2-year-onetime child asks for juice, he might say, "me juice," to which his female parent might respond by giving him a loving cup of apple juice.

Noam Chomsky (1957) criticized Skinner'south theory and proposed that we are all born with an innate capacity to learn language. Chomsky chosen this mechanism a language acquisition device (LAD). Who is correct? Both Chomsky and Skinner are right. Remember that nosotros are a product of both nature and nurture. Researchers at present believe that language acquisition is partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment (Gleitman & Newport, 1995; Stork & Widdowson, 1974).

Everyday Connexion: The Importance of Play and Recess

Co-ordinate to the American University of Pediatrics (2007), unstructured play is an integral part of a child's development. Information technology builds inventiveness, trouble solving skills, and social relationships. Play also allows children to develop a theory-of-mind as they imaginatively take on the perspective of others.

Outdoor play allows children the opportunity to direct feel and sense the world around them. While doing so, they may collect objects that they come up across and develop lifelong interests and hobbies. They also benefit from increased do, and engaging in outdoor play can actually increase how much they enjoy physical activity. This helps support the development of a healthy middle and brain. Unfortunately, research suggests that today'southward children are engaging in less and less outdoor play (Clements, 2004). Peradventure, information technology is no surprise to learn that lowered levels of physical activeness in conjunction with like shooting fish in a barrel access to calorie-dense foods with little nutritional value are contributing to alarming levels of babyhood obesity (Karnik & Kanekar, 2012).

Despite the adverse consequences associated with reduced play, some children are over scheduled and have fiddling free time to appoint in unstructured play. In addition, some schools have taken abroad recess time for children in a push for students to do improve on standardized tests, and many schools unremarkably utilize loss of recess as a form of penalty. Do you concord with these practices? Why or why not?

Glossary

cognitive empathy:ability to accept the perspective of others and to experience concern for others

fine motor skills:use of muscles in fingers, toes, and optics to coordinate small actions

gross motor skills:apply of large muscle groups to control arms and legs for large body movements

motor skills:ability to motility our body and dispense objects

reinforcement:feedback that strengthens future behavior

theory of listen:that children come to sympathize that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs different from their own

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